|
A Survey of Interurban
Taxi Drivers’driving Behaviors across Kermanshah,
Iran, in 2015
Reza Pourmirza Kalhori (1)
Azadeh Foroughinia (1)
Arash Ziapour (2)
(1) Emergency Medicine Department, Paramedical
School, Kermanshah University of Medical Scienses,
Kermanshah, Iran
(2) Research Center for Environmental Determinants
of Health (RCEDH), Kermanshah University of
Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
Correspondence:
Azadeh Foroughinia,
Emergency Medicine Department, Paramedical School,
Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences,
Kermanshah, IR. Iran
Email: aforoughinia@gmail.com
|
Abstract
Introduction:
Car accidents in developing countries
are one of the major causes of mortality
and injuries. Human errors are the most
important causes of traffic accidents.
The skill of safe driving a taxi was an
important part of job behaviors for drivers
of public transport.The aim of this study
was to determine the factors affecting
driving errors in Taxi Drivers’driving
Behaviors across Kermanshah 2015.
Methods:
The descriptive cross-sectional study
was performed in 2015. Data were collected
from the cluster random sampling that
was employed, and in the final volume
of sample population 226 subjects were
selected.The samples consisted of all
interurban taxi drivers with a driving
license and at least one year of driving
experience. Data were collected using
two questionnaires, a researcher-made
questionnaire and the Manchester Driving
Behavior Questionnaire. The validity of
the first questionnaire was confirmed
by the experts’ opinions while the
second questionnaire was validated in
previous studies. The qualitative and
quantitative analysis of data was conducted
using the SPSS Statistics Software Version
20.0.
Findings: The
reliability of the Manchester driving
behavior questionnaire measured 0.92.
Exploratory Factor Analysis showed differences
between slips, lapses, deliberate violation
and unintentional violation clearly. Internal
consistency were unintentional violation
0.42, deliberate violation 0.85, lapses
0.77 and slips 0.88. The most dangerous
driving behavior related to slips and
deliberate violation.
Conclusion:
The findings of this study show psychometric
properties of dangerous driving behavior
in deliberate violation and slips in Kermanshah
taxi drivers. it is suggested that driving
teaching workshops and safety driving
education are initiated for Kermanshahs’
taxi drivers.
Key words: Manchester Questionnaire,
Driving behavior, taxi driver.
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Car accidents and their consequences, especially
in developing countries, are seen as one of the
major causes of mortality and injuries. In addition
to economic losses, car accidents pose serious
loss of life in Iran (1). It is estimated that
roughly two million people lose their lives as
a result of car accidents in the world annually
(2). The estimated number of driving casualties
is over 15 million people per year (3), and Iran
is no exception, but what distinguishes Iran from
other countries is the growing trend of car accidents
compared to other countries. In most countries,
the growth trends of the accident index have been
either negative or sluggish from 1990 to 1993.
For instance, this trend has measured 18% in France,
16% in England, 7% in Denmark, 2% in Pakistan,
and 1.2% in India, while the very same index measured
55% in Iran between 1994 and 1996 (4). In other
words, the mortality rate resulting from car accidents
was 29 deaths per 10,000, while the very same
index indicated 1-2.5 people for developed countries
and 3-15 persons for developing ones (4).
In Iran, 64 people are killed in car accidents
every day, and 1967 injured people are hospitalized,
of which 640 people are disabled in car accidents.
Every day, the incomes of 450 families are severely
decreased, and with the assumption of the existence
of four people in each family, about 1,300 people
are severely affected by the financial pressures
of death or disability in the family. Every
year, 23,300 are killed and 718,000 are injured
in car accidents, of which 200,000 victims are
disabled. In other words, a total of 753,000
Iranians (equivalent to one percent of the whole
population of Iran) are killed or injured. The
estimated costs of accidents outside cities
alone have been 10 times higher than the budget
allocated to the construction and maintenance
of roads. If the effects of human factors are
controlled, accidents and driving violations
will probably be reduced (5).
Driving violations have always been one of
the leading causes of traffic problems and accidents
in all societies, and their rates and types
are different depending on the cultural, socioeconomic
and geographical contexts of societies. Notwithstanding
the environmental, controlling and executive
factors as well as the disproportion of road
structures to the number of vehicles and traffic
units and other factors contributing to driving
violations, the human factors, as the leading
cause, constitute the highest percentage of
violations. One of the major duties of health
researchers is to conduct research into the
related issues with the aim of having a more
accurate classification and understanding of
human factors that play prominent roles in road
accidents. It is noteworthy that all human factors
involved in driving accidents are not covered
by rectifying human errors by any means. In
fact, it’s important to distinguish between
errors and violations (6).
Errors are interpreted as one’s inability
or failure to make sound judgments or to perform
a series of designed actions to achieve the
intended results (7). Violations are those behaviors
that endanger the driving safety, for example,
excessive speed or driving without observing
the safe following distance from other vehicles
ahead (8). According to consensus, errors are
categorized into two distinct types. The first
type is about errors that are caused by problems
in attention, memory and information processing,
which include two major categories: lapse and
slip. The first type refers to errors that are
caused by the wrongly adopted approaches to
achieve a goal without awareness of one’s
wrong choice. Violations fall into two major
categories: unintentional violations (e.g.,
driving too slowly on narrow two-lane highways)
and deliberate violations (e.g., overtaking
other cars on solid white lines in crowded two-way
roads) (9).
Various studies have referred to the role of
human factors as the main cause of traffic irregularities,
particularly in driving offenses and accidents.
Disregard for traffic regulations and evasion
of law as the causes of problems, dilemmas and
traffic accidents in many societies depend on
the cultural, social, economic and geographical
conditions of societies. The statistics in Iran
are indicative of the high and unusual rates
of driving violations which cause irreparable
economic losses and social damage, not to mention,
human factors have been reported as the main
cause of driving violations (10). All interurban
taxi drivers are to have the required knowledge
and various skills to provide safe travel service
in the urban transport fleet. Further, they
must all have a driving licence class B2 and
adopt the correct driving behaviors while moving
along the traffic and avoid accidents using
their driving skills.
In a study conducted on 293 drivers with driving
licence class B2 in Isfahan, Iran, Oreyzi and
Haghayegh (2009) assessed the reliability and
validity of Manchester driving behavior questionnaire
and determined the types of traffic anomalies.
First of all, lapses, slips, unintentional violations
and deliberate violations were differentiated
from each other to examine the validity of the
instrument through the exploratory factor analysis.
The results of the final analysis showed that
all four factors had high internal consistency:
unintentional violations (0.65), deliberate
violations (0.86), lapses (0.81), and slips
(0.77). The results of this study demonstrated
that the Manchester driving behavior questionnaire
could be used as a valid and reliable instrument
for assessing the driving behaviors (11).
In a descriptive and analytical study conducted
on 1,286 interurban drivers in the United Arabic
Emirates by Beneret al. (2011), the driving
behaviors were investigated in terms of unintentional
violations, deliberate violations, lapses, and
slips. The results indicated that the unintentional
violations, lapses, deliberate violations and
slips accounted for 48%, 10.6%, 7.2% and 6.3%
of injuries caused by accidents, respectively
(12). The results showed that there was a difference
between the errors and violations performed
by the subjects under study. Furthermore, the
rates of slips, violations and lapses were higher
compared to those in Australia and European
countries (13).
In a study performed on driving examinees in
Shiraz, Iran, 537 subjects were selected using
convenience sampling through visiting places
such as the center for replacement and issuance
of license plates and a central specialized
clinic based in Shiraz. For data collection,
a demographic questionnaire, the Manchester
driving behavior questionnaire, and NEO Personality
Inventory were utilized. In addition, correlation
and variance analysis were usedfor data analysis.
The results of this study demonstrated that
there was a significant positive relationship
between the scores of neuroticism and the levels
of error types and unlawful actions (p<0.05).
Additionally, it was shown that the scores of
agreeableness and extraversion significantly
and inversely correlated with the levels of
error types and unlawful actions (p<0.05).
It was demonstrated that only the factors of
age and years of driving experience significantly
and negatively correlated with dangerous violations
(p<0.05). Interestingly, there was a significant
positive relationship between the years of formal
education and each of the rates of error types
and dangerous violations (p<0.05). Also,
the results indicated that there was a significant
relationship between the personality traits
and driving behaviors (14). The results of Ozkan
et al. study (2006) on 242 drivers selected
from Finland, England, Greece, Iran, Norway
and Turkey showed that lapses were the most
common factor in connection with driving accidents,
and a relationship was found between the patterns
of driving behaviors and accidents. So, it was
concluded that driving accidents could be estimated
based on the patterns of driving behaviors (15).
Given the significance of this skill, the necessity
of correct driving behaviors to minimize loss
of life and property caused by accidents, lack
of previous research in this respect across
Kermanshah, and the fact that a major portion
of urban transport is performed by interurban
taxi drivers, the present study aimed to investigate
the interurban taxi drivers’driving behaviors
across Kermanshah, Iran, in 2015.
The descriptive cross-sectional study was performed
in 2015. The statistical population consisted
of all interurban taxi drivers with a driving
license and at least one year of driving experience.
As for sampling, the cluster random sampling
was employed, and the final volume of sample
population was estimated to be 200 taxi drivers
based on the fact that there were 260 interurban
travel agencies across Kermanshah which fell
into 20 clusters, and 10 people were selected
from each cluster. The final volume of the sample
population was estimated to be 184 taxi drivers
using the study performed by Oreizy and Haghayegh
(2009), but 220 subjects were selected due to
the possibility of sample attrition. After the
distribution and collection of questionnaires,
the final volume of the sample population reached
226 subjects. To encourage the taxi drivers
to complete the questionnaires, one car air
freshener was given to each of the participants(11).
For data collection, a researcher-made demographic
questionnaire and the Manchester driving behavior
questionnaire, were utilized. In addition, the
face and content validities of the demographic
questionnaire were approved by a panel of 10
faculty members at Kermanshah University of
Medical Sciences. The Manchester driving behavior
questionnaire was developed by Reason et al.
(1990) in the Department of Psychology at the
University of Manchester. Furthermore, the reliability
and validity of this instrument has been confirmed
in different countries of the world, including
Iran (11). This questionnaire was designed based
on the basic theory that errors and violations
have different psychological causes and correction
procedures, and they should be differentiated.
Moreover, given the prohibition of alcoholic
beverages in most countries the questions relating
to the permitted consumption of alcoholic drinks
were modified.. Also, this questionnaire consisted
of 50 items with five-point Likert scale (0=never,
1=rarely, 2=sometimes, 3=often, 4=usually, 5=Always).
The questions were different in two aspects:
the kind of behaviors and the extent of danger
that the behavior causes for other drivers.
The abnormal behaviors fall into four categories:
lapses, slips, unintentional violations, and
deliberate violations. Also, in terms of the
extent of danger that each of these categories
cause for drivers, there are three categorizations:
1) low-risk, 2) average-risk, and 3) high-risk
(see Table 1).
The qualitative and quantitative analysis of
data were conducted using the SPSS Statistics
Software Version 20.0.Furthermore, the statistical
tests of mean and variance were employed for
the descriptive analysis of the demographic
characteristics and driving cultures of the
samples under study. To investigate the factor
structure of the Manchester driving behavior
questionnaire, the principal components analysis,
one of the procedures of exploratory factor
analysis, with varimax rotation method were
utilized and items were operating under factor
loading to separate from each other factor and
will be calculated error. After performing the
factor analysis; the internal consistency was
analyzed based on the extracted factors. To
commence the study, the required permits were
obtained from the Vice Chancellery for the Department
of Research and Technology at Kermanshah University
of Medical Sciences.
Of
the
total
of
226
subjects
of
the
present
study,
64.2%
of
drivers
were
married,
and
35.8%
were
single.
The
average
age
of
subjects
was
34.86
(±11.33),
the
average
work
experience
measured
9.94
(±8.27),
and
the
average
driving
history
was
5.24
(±3.86).
In
terms
of
education,
5.8%
of
the
respondents
were
illiterate,
32.3%
had
middle
school
education,
17.3%
were
high
school
graduates,
29.6%
had
A.A.
degrees,
12.4%
had
B.A./B.Sc.
degrees,
and
2.7%
held
M.A./M.Sc.
degrees.
Besides,
23.9%,
47.3%,
11.5%
and
17.3%
had
class
1,
class
2,
class
B1
and
class
B2
driver’s
licenses,
respectively.
In
Table
2,
the
drivers’
behavioral
characteristics
are
shown
in
terms
of
traffic
violation
records
and
normal
behaviors.
To
investigate
the
factor
structure
of
the
Manchester
driving
behavior
questionnaire,
the
principal
components
analysis,
one
of
the
procedures
of
exploratory
factor
analysis,
with
varimax
rotation
method
were
utilized.
The
results
showed
that
the
KMQ
index
measured
0.867.
In
addition,
the
fours
factors
of
slips,
lapses,
deliberate
violations
and
unintentional
violations
were
differentiated
from
each
other.
The
results
indicated
that
these
four
factors
determined
42.169%
of
the
vaiance
of
behaviors.
The
reliability
of
the
Manchester
driving
behavior
questionnaire
measured
0.92.
After
performing
the
factor
analysis,
the
internal
consistency
was
analyzed
based
on
the
extracted
factors.
In
Table
3,
the
internal
consistencies
of
the
four
factors
are
shown.
In
the
first
factor
(slips),
21
items
were
examined,
and
the
9th
and
15th
questions
had
the
highest
(0.873)
and
lowest
(0.869)
factor
loadings,
respectively.
In
addition,
the
internal
consistency
was
0.880
(see
Table
4
-
next
page).
In
the
second
factor
(deliberate
violations),
17
items
were
examined,
and
the
44th
and
29th
questions
had
the
highest
(0.845)
and
lowest
(0.623)
factor
loadings,
respectively.
In
addition,
the
internal
consistency
measured
0.859
(see
Table
5).
In
the
third
factor
(lapses),
nine
items
were
examined,
and
the
33rd
and
49th
questions
had
the
highest
(0.772)
and
lowest
(0.756)
factor
loadings,
respectively.
In
addition,
the
internal
consistency
measured
0.779
(see
Table
6
-
page
20).
In
the
fourth
factor
(unintentional
violations),
three
items
were
examined,
and
the
28th
and
22nd
questions
had
the
highest
(0.214)
and
lowest
(0.239)
factor
loadings,
respectively.
In
addition,
the
internal
consistency
measured
0.426
(see
Table
7).
Click
here
for
Table
1:The
Structure
of
the
Items
of
the
Questionnaire
Based
on
the
Classification
of
Abnormal
Behaviors
and
Their
Risks
(High,
Average,
and
Low)
Click
here
for
Table
2:
The
Frequency
Distribution
of
the
Drivers’
Behavioral
Characteristics
in
Terms
of
the
Traffic
Violation
Records
and
Normal
Behaviors
Click
here
for
Table
3:
The
Cronbach’s
Alpha
Coefficients
Based
on
the
Standardized
Items
in
Manchester
Driving
Behavior
Questionnaire
Click
here
for
Table
4:
The
Statistical
Indexes
of
the
First
Factor
(Slips)
Click
here
forTable
5:
The
Statistical
Indexes
of
the
Second
Factor
(Deliberate
Violations)
Click
here
for
Table
6:
The
Statistical
Indexes
of
the
Third
Factor
(Lapses)
Click
here
for
Table
7:
The
Statistical
Indexes
of
the
Fourth
Factor
(Unintentional
Violations)
In
today’s
world,
car
accidents
are
one
of
the
the
leading
causes
of
death
of
human
beings.
In
Iran,
the
first
fatal
car
accident
was
reported
in
1926
which
has
witnessed
a
progressively
ascending
trend
ever
since,
so
that
one
of
the
major
causes
of
three
hundred
thousand
annual
deaths
occurring
in
the
country,
except
the
cardiovascular
diseases,
has
been
car
accidents
(2).
Driving
offences,
as
one
of
the
causes
of
traffic
problems,
obstacles
and
accidents
in
societies,
have
different
forms
depending
on
the
cultural,
social,
economic
and
geographical
contexts
of
societies
(16,17).
Notwithstanding
the
environmental,
controlling
and
executive
factors
as
well
as
the
disproportion
of
road
structures
to
the
number
of
vehicles
and
traffic
units
and
other
factors
contributing
to
driving
violations,
the
human
factors,
as
the
leading
cause,
constitute
the
highest
percentage
of
violations
(18,19,20).
The
results
of
the
present
study
demonstrated
that
with
the
increase
of
the
age
of
the
subjects
under
study,
the
rates
of
the
unintentional
violations
and
average
risks
were
on
the
rise.
This
finding
was
consistent
with
the
results
of
a
study
conducted
by
Lucidi
et
al.
(2006).
To
further
explicate
this
finding,
it
can
be
expressed
that
with
the
increase
of
one’s
age,
one
would
have
a
false
confidence
in
one’s
driving
skills,
thereby
leading
to
risky
behaviors
in
driving
patterns
(21).
On
the
other
hand,
the
growing
consumption
of
alcohol
and
other
mind-altering
drugs
among
older
drivers
has
been
reported
as
the
cause
of
risky
driving
behaviors
(22).
It
should
be
noted
that
various
studies
have
addressed
the
emergence
of
risky
behaviors
in
the
driving
patterns
at
young
ages,
for
example,
having
less
control
over
stress
and
losing
temper
easily
(23
&
24).
Given
this
finding,
it
seems
essential
that
the
significance
of
safe
driving
be
stressed
in
training
programs
aimed
at
strengthening
the
driving
skills
of
the
emergency
personnel,
regardless
of
age.
In
the
driving
profession,
one
should
be
able
to
show
more
distinct
driving
behaviors
than
those
adopted
by
other
drivers.
There
have
been
various
reports
on
the
difference
between
the
professional
and
amateur
drivers
in
terms
of
risky
driving
and
response
to
stress,
so
that
the
training
needs
of
professional
drivers
about
driving
behaviors
are
very
different
from
those
of
amateur
drivers,
for
example,
the
speed
limit
and
destination
(25).
The
results
of
the
present
study
also
indicated
that
the
rate
of
the
average
risk
in
driving
increased
in
line
with
greater
work
experience,
which
can
be
caused
by
the
abundant
stress
in
the
profession.
Given
this
finding,
it
is
suggested
that
further
studies
be
conducted
in
this
respect.
Although
there
have
been
reports
about
the
higher
rates
of
overtaking
and
exceeding
the
speed
limit
among
drivers
with
higher
education,
the
results
of
the
present
study
demonstrated
that
the
rates
of
lapses
and
unintentional
violations
were
higher
among
drivers
holding
education
under
high
school
diploma
(26).
This
remarkable
finding
should
be
taken
into
consideration
in
choosing
the
interurban
taxi
drivers,
and
further
studies
are
suggested
to
be
undertaken
in
this
regard.
Compared
to
other
drivers,
it
seemed
that
the
taxi
drivers
under
study
acted
more
in
compliance
with
the
basic
principles
of
preventing
accidents
such
as
fastening
seat
belts
and
not
using
mobile
phones
during
driving.
In
the
present
study,
the
rate
of
fastening
seat
belts
upon
riding
or
driving
a
car
measured
86.8%,
while
the
same
rate
measured
63.1%
in
a
study
done
by
Bener
et
al.
(2011)
(27).
In
terms
of
abiding
by
driving
tips,
such
as
not
talking
on
cellphones
while
driving,
not
eating
and
drinking
while
driving
and
observing
the
speed
limit,
the
participants
of
the
present
study
were
in
better
condition
in
comparison
with
those
studied
by
Bener
et
al.
(2011)
(27).
In
Iran,
after
conducting
some
research
into
the
causes
of
driving
fatalities,
it
was
found
out
that
not
using
seat
belts
was
the
number
one
cause,
thereby
leading
to
the
enactment
of
a
rule
in
this
respect
in
2005
which
made
fastening
seat
belts
compulsory
(28),
so
that
the
institutionalization
of
this
rule
and
its
growing
use
have
been
reported
in
recent
studies
(29).
However,
it
should
be
noted
that
there
were
more
driving
lapses
among
the
samples
who
used
seat
belts.
It
is
noteworthy
that
the
primary
goal
of
fastening
seat
belts
is
to
reduce
driving
fatalities
and
injuries
with
this
assumption
that
it
prevents
initial
hits.
Given
the
interurban
driving
profession
and
the
importance
of
the
health
of
victims
and
the
fact
that
safe
driving
is
one
of
the
main
pillars
of
this
profession,
it
is
essential
that
the
driving
skills
of
interurban
drivers
across
Kermanshah
be
boosted
through
holding
safe
driving
courses.
Talking
on
cellphones
while
driving
is
another
example
of
unsafe
driving,
which
is
more
dangerous
than
other
distractors
like
eating
and
drinking
while
driving.
Sending
and
receiving
SMS
while
driving
distract
the
driver’s
attention
from
paying
close
attention
to
the
road
ahead,
thereby
leading
to
dangerous
consequences.
Moreover,
the
results
of
the
present
study
revealed
that
there
was
a
significant
negative
relationship
between
risky
driving
behaviors
and
history
of
accidents
leading
to
injury
and
death,
thereby
confirming
reports
in
this
regard
in
Iran
(30).
The
present
study
had
several
limitations.
Firstly,
the
data
were
collected
through
the
self-reporting
methods,
possibly
affecting
the
accuracy
of
the
results
and
social
desirability
bias,
but
various
studies
have
reported
that
the
questionnaire
has
weak
effects
on
the
responses
of
the
subjects
in
terms
of
the
social
desirability
bias
nevertheless
(17
&
10).
Secondly,
the
type
and
the
make
of
cars
were
not
considered
in
the
present
study,
and
no
comparisons
were
made
in
this
respect.
There
are
some
studies
that
have
reported
that
the
drivers
of
new,
more
powerful
and
luxurious
cars
commit
the
offense
of
exceeding
the
speed
limit
(31
&
32).
The
results
of
examining
the
structure
of
the
Manchester
driving
behavior
questionnaire
showed
that
the
highest
risks
were
related
to
deliberate
violations
and
slips,
while
in
a
study
performed
by
OREYZI
(2011),
the
highest
risks
were
related
to
unintentional
violations
and
slips
(11).
This
finding
was
indicative
of
the
fact
that
the
patterns
of
taking
risks
among
the
interurban
taxi
drivers
residing
in
Kermanshah
were
not
similar
to
those
adopted
by
other
drivers
in
other
cities
and
even
other
countries.
This
finding
was
consistent
with
the
point
mentioned
by
Özkan
et
al.
(2006),
stating
that
‘the
Manchester
driving
behavior
questionnaire
is
regarded
as
a
valid
instrument
for
assessing
the
driving
behaviors.
It
should
be
noted
that,
in
addition
to
the
national
traffic
problems
in
any
society,
the
regional
and
local
problems
and
the
indigenous
and
cultural
contexts
of
cities
should
be
taken
into
consideration,
not
to
mention,
training
positive
driving
behaviors
may
be
seen
as
the
best
way
to
improve
driving
behaviors
(9).
Driving
is
one
of
the
necessary
skills
of
interurban
taxi
drivers
residing
in
Kermanshah.
With
the
increase
of
age
and
work
experience,
it
is
likely
that
the
incidence
of
driving
accidents
rises,
and
this
skill
should
not
be
considered
trivial
for
the
sake
of
age
and
work
experience
by
any
means.
In
addition,
it
should
be
noted
that
young
drivers
may
not
have
enough
experience
in
these
skills
and
may
have
more
slips
and
unintentional
violations
in
their
driving
behaviors.
More
to
the
point,
fastening
seat
belts
is
no
guarantee
for
safe
driving
and
making
driving
mistakes.
Hence,
it
is
necessary
that
safe
driving
workshops
and
low-risk
driving
programs
be
considered
for
interurban
taxi
drivers
and
their
driving
skills
be
enhanced.
Acknowledgments
The
present
article
was
based
on
the
findings
of
the
research
project
no.94029,
supported
by
the
Vice
Chancellery
for
Research
&
Technology
of
Kermanshah
University
of
Medical
Sciences.
In
the
end,
our
grateful
thanks
go
to
all
participants
for
their
kind
support
and
cooperation.
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